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A microprocessor is a small computer-on-a-chip that contains the central processing unit of a computer, similar to the CPU of a larger system. Microprocessors are often called processors or CPUs. The first microprocessor was created in 1971 at Intel. That chip's name was the Intel 4004, and it contained 2,300 transistors. Microprocessors are found today in many devices from smartphones to industrial machinery and toys, but they first achieved widespread use as part of personal computers during the 1980s and 1990s. They then became ubiquitous in other electronic equipment such as tablet computers, automobiles' pumps and appliances worldwide since 2000s. The processing elements in a microprocessor are usually arranged in a two-dimensional grid array. Since all the microprocessor's logic circuits require connections to each other, and since the connections between circuits produced by individual wires would occupy most of the chip area, it is more convenient to arrange logic blocks into groups and connect them with a two-dimensional mesh. This method of routing may also increase average case performance by allowing short high-speed paths between distant points [1]. A microprocessor is designed as a general-purpose central processing unit (CPU). With very few exceptions, a microprocessor can only execute a program stored in its read-only memory (ROM) as long as the power is supplied. When executing machine code, it can both read data from memory and write data to memory. To change program instructions stored in ROM, the microprocessor must be instructed to reprogram itself by a special instruction. This can be achieved by placing an executable program code sequence known as bootstrap loader(s) or initial program loaders(s) into ROM. The read-only memory (ROM) contains the BIOS, hardware drivers and other programs that control the microprocessor during normal operations. The different types of ROMs for modern microprocessors include: ROM, EPROM, EEPROM and Flash ROM. Multiple hierarchical levels of programmable ROM may also exist within a CPU chip. This allows extremely high-level (non-featured) software or firmware to be updated and updated quickly and easily without having to reprogram an entire CPU each time it is updated using a user-firmware upgrade procedure. Modern CPUs also usually contain circuitry to detect and process instructions fetched from memory; this forms part of the microarchitecture (see below). The control and monitoring circuitry used to fetch and process instructions is part of the microprocessor rather than part of the ROM. Uniprocessors generally have two or four functional units: a floating-point unit (FPU), which performs fixed-point arithmetic; a fixed-point integer unit (FXU); an ALU, which performs basic logic operations such as AND, AND NOT, OR, OR NOT; and a stack pointer register or SAVE pointer that specifies the topmost location in the ALU from which instructions to continue execution will be fetched from memory. In addition to these general purpose units, most microprocessors contain special purpose hardware for communication with other devices. eccc085e13
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